Defining literature in the context of The White Tiger

THE WHITE TIGER BY ARAVIND ADIGA:-

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Generally we apply various theories to evaluate the texts, for example Psycho-analysis, gender studies etc.

But here my focus is on "Redefining literature in context of The White Tiger"-"whatever definition we try to give to literature where this text falls in" ??

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In literature, there is no totality of truth, but there are grains of truth. Sometimes book shows us mirror image or/ & sometimes an X- ray image of society. Reading literature  is also a quest for the self. We've to identify where am  i in literature ?

Apart from this, there is age old debate since time of Plato & Aristotle that poetry should be banned, because it makes people emotional. so we've to study also from this angle that whether literature makes us emotional or rational.

Another point is that of Art for art's sake and art for life's sake. where this book falls in?

It would be appropriate to put here views of Bertolt Brecht- "Art is not a mirror to reflect reality, but a hammer to shape it."

It is said in Sanskrit that "Sa vidya ya vimuktaye". so we have to look from this point that Is Reading literature leads us from darkness to light ?? Are we becoming free from shackles of narrow  minded mentality after reading book / literature ?? What happen to us ?? Does it make any difference after reading it ??

So, I have try to ponder this questions into The White Tiger.

"I was looking for the keys for years, but the door was always open"-The White Tiger.

If you want to break the "MYTH OF SHINING INDIA" &"MERA BHARAT MAHAN" read The White Tiger. There is not a single object left out by Adiga. Whatever has come to his way, he has bluntly criticized it.

→ Corruption in politics & education, pollution, prostitution, Hit & run, failure of governmental institution, Rich V/s poor conflict,Religion, Capitalism V/s Marxism, Business model of India(entrepreneurs), Globalization and changing morality,two sides of India-Darkness and Light beautifully merged into single plot in humorous and satirical way.

From the beginning Balram satirizes various institutions of India. He says ....."And our nation, though it has no drinking water, electricity, sewage system, public transportation, sense of hygiene, discipline, courtesy or punctuality, does have entrepreneurs."(P-4)

Then he criticizes gods of all the religion or we can say he makes fun of habit of people to kiss arses of god or to pray god before beginning of movie or starting other work. More than that he compares god with politicians. Lets quote original lines :- "It's true that all these gods seems to do awfully little work-much like our politicians-and yet keep winning re election to their golden thrones, years after years. (P-8)

And more than that he says "....You will find an image of a saffron coloured creature, half man half monkey: This is Hanuman, everybody's favourite god in darkness. Do you know about Hanuman sir ? He was the faithful servant of the god Rama, and we worship him in our temples because he is a shining example of how to serve your masters with absolute fidelity, love and devotion. These are the gods they have foisted on us, Mr Jiabao. Understand, now, how hard it is for a man to win his freedom in India. (P-19)

Lets quote here words of Franz Kafka- "I think we ought to read only the kinds of books that WOUND and STAB us. If the book we are reading doesn't wake us up with a blow on the head, what are we reading it for?..... we need the books that affect us like a disaster, that grieve us deeply, like the death of someone we loved more than ourselves, like the death of someone we loved more than ourselves, like a suicide. A book MUST BE THE AXE FOR THE FROZEN SEA INSIDE US".

-Franz Kafka- Letter to Oskar Pollak ( 27 Jan. 1904)

This portion is exactly like an axe.

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The White Tiger is an X- Ray image of a diseased body (Nation). Even after taking X - Ray, if everything is fine within the body, then its no problem. But here unfortunately, it is not the case. Everything is rotten, decayed inside. And people are singing song of Shining India. But the truth is that large number of people are left behind. This success story that are told again and again are of very limited people.

Lets quote Adiga here....

"Well, this is the reality for a lot of Indian people and it's important that it gets written about, rather than just hearing about the 5% of people in my country who are doing well. In somewhere like Bihar there will be no doctors in the hospital. In northern India politics is so corrupt that it makes a mockery of democracy. This is a country where the poor fear tuberculosis, which kills 1,000 Indians a day, but people like me - middle- class people with access to health services that are probably better than England's - don't fear it at all. It's an unglamorous disease, like so much of the things that the poor of India endure.

Here it is appropriate to compare with lines of Hamlet, "........rotten state of Denmark"

BECAUSE...

Here in school teachers are selling uniform of students given by government. why teachers do this ?? Because govt. dont pay them their salary on time. and more shocking thing is that people sympathise them, they dont have problem with it. so, when people see corruption happening around them and then even if they remain silent? keep mum is even greater problem.

Lines about our school is very ironical that-"If the Indian village is a paradise, then the school is a paradise within a paradise"(p-32).

"There was supposed to be a free food at my school- a government programme gave every boy three rotis, yellow daal, and pickles at lunchtime. But we never saw rotis, or yellow daal or pickles, and everybody knew why: the schoolteacher had stolen our lunch money.(p-32/33).

The similar thing happens with hospitals also that there is no doctor in hospital, he is in his own clinic or private hospitals. he can run clinic by bribing officers.

"No!- Mr Jiabao, i urge you not to dip in the Ganga, unless you want your mouth full of faeces, straw, soggy parts of human bodies, buffalo carrion and seven different kinds of industrial acids. (p-15)

......in village buses were never late more than an hour or two!!!!(p.-23).

Inspector scolds teacher that- "There is no duster in this class; there are no chairs; there are no uniforms for the boys. How much money have you stolen from school funds ????(p-34)

So he says "Stories of rottenness and corruption are always the best stories, arent they???(P-50) Because now people dont have problem with it. We've naturalized it. accepted it. And this naturalization of corruption is big problem.

At the same time he presents the picture of private hospitals  in Delhi that, "When i peeped in from outside, the hospital's lobby looked as clean as the inside of the five star hotel."(P-180). Failure of governmental institutions due to corruption or lack of political will and widespread of privatization are also significant in the novel.

Mirror image is selective. Are we doing this?

HOW Far this image is true ??

Example of Gujarati cinema. lasvicious dialogue, witty repartee etc in comedy of manners. The same in our cinema.

Lets discuss the example of Gujarati movie "Chello Divas". This movie is praised a  lot as a revival of Gujarati cinema. But at the same time harshly criticized by many- they argue that whatever is shown in the movie is not reality. All the students are not such the way they have presented in the movie.

MY POINT IS THAT, ART IS (HAS TO BE) SELECTIVE. Whatever presented / narrated that may be half truth. But there is always other side of coin. One cant generalize this as the only truth.

For example, so many experiences and observations about India are ponder in The White Tiger. But India itself is so large and full of diversity. Balram laughs at Democracy because of his experiences. that can be true to that state or region. But it may not be the case is Gujrat or other states of country.

As a reader, while reading the novel i felt that "Novel looks like tale about india of 1970-80(Even though it is 21st century text published in 2008). Because i am born and brought up in Gujrat.And Gujrat is comparatively developed state state then Bihar, U.P. or Jharkhand etc.Similarly the kind of traffic jam or pollution which is in Delhi may not be in other parts of India. So i have not seen the picture like this which books speaks about. But when we watch news or read about other states of India it may have few similarities with the narrative of the novel.

So, my point is that this mirror image is also sometimes problematic. But at the same time one cant neglect it also.

Here we can apply Homi. K. Bhabha's - "Nation and Naration".

Nation - the Modern Janus.(Greek god with 2 face-looking forward and backward). when one speaks other remains hidden.

Bhabha observes how other is created for Nation building. Other is always fear in National identity. Story of shining India is one face of the Nation, where as Balram's story of rottenness , of Darkness is the hidden face of the same Nation.

When entire world was looking with hope towards India as a rising super power nation, and  critics like Thomas Friedman were praising India, at that time this novel came as a shock.

I may not believe the representation of India, unless it is proved. The major incident in novel takes place in Delhi - capital of India. While working as  a driver Balram many time refers to traffic jam and air pollution. is it true ? Do we have any scientific proof proving it as truth?

In last Nov-Dec (2015), There was a summit about climate change in France. According to agency's report, most 150 polluted cities were identified from all over the world. 15 cities of India were also mentioned there, and surprisingly Delhi was top in list. This report came in 2015, but this problem discussed much earlier novel in 2008.

Right now Odd & Even formula started by Delhi govt. to control traffic and pollution. This step also proves narrative as right.

Another significant point is India of light & India of Darkness. In rural area people had no work at all. People roam here &  there for work. Where as , as Balram mentions In Banglore there are hoardings for job. Well qualified people are not available who can satisfy the need of market.

Another interesting point to observe is "Balram's metamorphosis from Edenic innocence to coldblooded murderer. He was a good, loyal servant. But everywhere he saw evil and corruption around him. Generally we saw that for example newly elected person in government job are more honest and sincere but environment, work culture and atmosphere is such that one has to sucumb to the situation. And later on he transforms into corrupt officer ( as narrated  in most of Hindi movies). Similarly this reality is also presented in the novel, which can be read as x-ray  image of society. Balram as a driver was living in very poor condition. Other drivers around him were also busy in cheap magazines, prostitution, stealing petrol or black mailing their masters, selling bottles of empty wine etc. This is bitter but reality.

When Ashok's wife left him, he visited Ukranian girl with the Minister. This is the point where Balram thinks "They corrupted him"(P-217). In Aristotelian term this can be said as "Hamartia" -(Fatal flow:- A personality trait or other characteristic of a real or fictional individual which is immoral, destructive and which leads to the ruin or profound suffering of that individual.) For the character of Mr. Ashok.This gave strength to Balram that i am morally better than my master. This is the strong cause for Balram to slit the throat of master.

while this incident, there is a beautiful line that ".........India has progressed, hasn't it ?.  She's (Ukranian girl student who is prostitute) speaking in Hindi".

This passage attacks like an axe on frozen snow. Actually, it laughs, makes mockery or fun of so called progress and development.

She is a student, came to study. But what is she doing???!!! What kind of education students are getting??  And she is visited by minsters and businessman, the rich-super class people of India. If they are like this then what can we expect from laymen???From Drivers to politicians this rottenness is spread like net everywhere.

Thats why i mentioned this novel as a X- ray image of a diseased body (Nation). Nothing is well within. It needs to cure as soon as possible.

Thats why it is said that "sa vidya ya vimuktaye". So, i would like to categorize this novel under category of "Art for Life's sake". Lets take example of "The Scarlet Letter" by Nathaniel Hawthorne. When we read the novel we favor Hester Prynne, even though she has commited adultery. Because literature always stands for humanity.But imagine once, what will happen if everybody start doing what was done by Hester ? There will be chaos, anarchy in society. similarly as a reader we may feel sympathy for Balram, but if everybody start doing like Balram then it will disturb the balance of society. Because Adiga's vision is dystopic. Utopian society cant be created with the dystopic vision like this. and this is what we've to learn from literature.After studying text like this we've to learn that i shoudnt do this. Evil is not answer to evil. Reading literature makes us free from shackles of narrowmindedness. It gives vision to understand world in a better way.

Balram is not a hero for me, but he is just Mouthpiece or representative of Majority of people living in the era of Globalization , Capitalism and Privatization. As a writer Aravind captures this under currunt of society. Slowly and steadily we are moving to become society like this, where everybody wants success, richness, power. No matter what cost one has to pay for it. Sliting Ashok's throat is example of it.

The demage which was not done by hundreds of years of British raj, that damage is now being done by Neo Colonialism.

Balram was innocent in village but transforms into murderer after entering into metro city.Cities stands for (or is Metaphor for) L. P.G., Capitalism, MNC. it means he bacame murdere because of all these things. Even more surprising / shocking thing is that he has no regret for what he has done.

This is the morality with which every child is growing in India that money is everything, and for success you have to flow blood, whether yours or someone else's. There are only two destinies-to eat or to be eaten up.

So, Adiga by capturing the under currunt warning us against the direction towards which we are moving as a society. So, again text is art for life's sake.

Balram says "I'm man of action and change" (p-5).This point proves this book as it makes more rational. Balram is a thinking man, but he thinks rationally. The way he reads god Hanuman as a symbol of slavery is cleaarly anti dogmatic. He is not even emotionally attached with his family. He dont sent money to his family on time. When he killed Mr. Ashok in Delhi and ran away to Banglore, he knew very well that his family would be killed by them, but he even dont care to inform the family member about the possible danger.

And The White Tiger is also not a fantasy but a critical and deep thinking about the India. It makes us rational to think who we are ? What are our limitations and pitfalls as a society?

Rather than believing into political speeches of "India is shining" and swaying with the flow it makes us rational to question and doubt it.

it makes us rational to ask why some one is so rich, living luxurious life in big houses, moving in cars , at the same time other is so poor that they dont have even food to eat, home to live, school to study or hospitals for basic health concerns ?

"Che garib na ghar ma tel nu tipuy dohlyu, ane amiro ni kabar par ghee na diva bale che".

In Democratic society where equality should prevail, Why this inequality, descrimination and class conflicts????

Someone is rich not only because he is working hard but because other's share is stolen by them.

With the character of Ram Persad- a driver who actually was muslim fellow but changed his name only to get job, and Pinky madam- Ashok's wife who was christian, whom Balram calls a lady with conscience- novel makes us rational to think that what is more important Religion or humanity??? Why should we judge someone on the basis of religion?

Balram himself confesses that Ram Persad was far better driver than him in every respect. Then even he has to leave the job. Pinky was not accepted by Ashok's family because she belongs to different religion.

As a reader we have to think, what should be the criteria to judge the person?

*Conclusion:-

Thus, in an attempt to redefining literature, i would like to conclude that the novel is an x- ray image, it breaks the frozen snow within, it makes us rational and after all it is Art for life's sake.

Work cited:-

Adiga, Arvind. The White Tiger. New Delhi: Harper collins, 2008.

www.theguardian.com. The gardian. 2008. 10 01 2016 <www/theguardian.com/books/2008/oct/16/booker-prize>.

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Historical, biographical and Post colonial approach in "A Grain of Wheat" by Ngugi wa Thiongo.

Historical, biographical and Post colonial approach in "A Grain of Wheat" by Ngugi wa Thiongo.

*Introduction*

One of the most important characteristcs of literature is that it is Imaginative.Although we've to remember that it is not Fanciful ideas away from Reality.It has touch of realism. No writer can write anything unless that experiences is lived by himself, feel by himself.

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So, lets discuss that how Ngugi wa Thiongo's personal experiences are poured into A Grain of Wheat. At the same time we will also keep in mind that Ngugi is very important figure in Post colonial world. So, we will also try to evaluate novel from post colonial angle.

 Colonial period was a time of turmoil, supression/repression of colonies. So this was experienced by the writers himself as a child. and when they grew up they have written their experiences of this time.

Lets have a brief look on What is Post colonialism?

Post Colonialism is an approach, a lens to see, understand and subvert notion of Western superiority.

~ It is an approach, in which colony writes back.

~We have to relook, rethink, revisit whatever written or spoken by the white people.

~Europeans have developed pre conceived notion about the East.

~Doubt whatever comes from West, every step taken by them is under doubt& question.

.  Postcolonialism  includes  terms  such  as  “resistance, hybridity, desire, difference”  in  addition  to “the  facts of slavery, migration,and political  independence”

# Hybridity:-

Concept of hybridity is very essential in post colonial era. Writer himself was born in colonial Kenya, given a christian name James and later on he also studied English authors. so the impact of European as well as native values, tradition and culture always remains at clash.

 Ngugi  wa  Thiong’o  is  one  the  most  important  postcolonial  writers  who  shows  his  protest against  the  colonizers  in  his  works.  In  Decolonizing  the  Mind,  he  stresses  how  the colonizers  exploited Africa,  and its people. He  asserts that, In  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  Europe  stole  art  treasures  from  Africa  to decorate  their  houses  and  museums;  in  the  twentieth  century  Europe  is  stealing  the treasures  of  the  mind  to  enrich  their  languages  and  cultures.  Africa  needs  back  its economy,  its  politics,  its  culture,  its  languages  and  all  its  patriotic  writers  (eds. Parker and Starkey, 125).

Ngugi was born in 1938, and grew up in rural areas of heaviest European occupatipn , where memories of expulsion and displacement were within the life time of the people.

His elder brother joined the Mau Mau, and another brother, who was deaf and dumb, was shot by security forces in exaclt the way Gitogo dies in the opening pages of A Grain of Wheat, unable to hear an order to stop runing.- This point indicates that how biographical elements also shape the literature. He makes a character who stands for his own brother. The kind of description is given about character is very powerful and it touches to heart. we feel sympathy for the character as well as writer. we can imagine the pain that what may happen to him as well as his mother when their family members were killed by White people. After such terrible experiences what can we expect from him?? Definitely, it will be full of angst, anger and hatred.

*Hisgorical approach:

The novel captures the period of independance of Kenya and Emergency. Mau Mau Emergency in A Grain of Wheat presented for the first time an African perspective on the Kenyan armed revolt against the colonial rule. novel is a reading of  past- present & - future of Nation (Kenya).

novel is  interesting historical document to read the contemporary time. we find many parallel of that time narrated in the novel-Mau Mau rebellion is one of them, so lets discuss about it.

The Mau Mau Uprising , also known as the MauMau Revolt , Mau Mau Rebellion , or Kenya Emergency , was a military conflict that took place in British Kenyabetween 1952 and 1960. The Mau Mau failed to capture widespread public support, partly due to the British policy of divide and rule and the movement remained internally divided, despite attempts to unify its various strands.(Wikipedia)

So, the resistance, the struggle for independence ( Mau Mau revolt) which is the spirit of the time is very much present in the novel. In  A  Grain  of  Wheat,  we  again  see  the  awakening  and  resistance  of  native  people,  who  go to  the  forest  to  fight  against  the  colonizers

The  novel  includes  four  main  characters,  who  are  all  from  the  Gikuyu  village  of Thabai.  These  characters  are  Mugo,  Gikonyo,  Mumbi  and  Karanja.  Mugo  is  a  heroic person,  who  started  hunger  strike  in  detention  camp  and  also  he  resisted  against  a  village guard  to  protect  a  pregnant  woman  from  beating.  Although  he  is  considered  to  be  a  hero throughout  the  whole  novel,  at  the  end  of  the  story  it  is  understood  that  Mugo  is  the  traitor of  Kihika,  who  was  a  freedom  fighter  hanged  after  being  betrayed  by  Mugo.  That  is,  Mugo is  the  symbol  of  betrayal  in  the  novel.  Apart  from  Mugo,  Karanja  is  also  betrayer  who collaborated  with  the  British  and  considered  to  be  the  traitor  of  Kihika.  Karanja  opts  for joining  the  government  guards  instead  of  fighting  for  his  own  people.  He  also  betrays  his close friend, Gikonyo, by sleeping with Gikonyo’s wife, Mumbi. A Grain of Wheat gives voice to this

underlying sense of loss. while also reaffirming the value of Africa’s past (pre-colonization), it offers an intimacy and strong clarity to the painful process of redefining and recreating a broken society.Gikonyo is driven to deny an oath he holds sacred because of a longing to return home where, “He only wanted to see his Mumbi and take up the thread of life where he had left it” (125). On a larger scale, the reality of Gikonyo’s wanting and its outcome illustrates this haunting consequence of colonization. Obviously, there can be no return from colonization; decolonization simply shifts.the forced relationship from exploitation to the painful struggle for independence and liberation.

All  of  the  characters  look  forward  to freedom.  Warui’s  expressions  show  their  love  for  freedom:  “Our  people,  is  there  a  song sweeter  than  that  of  freedom?  Of  a  truth,  we  have  waited  for  it  many  a  sleepless  night. Those  who  have  gone  before  us,  those  of  us  spared  to  see  the  sun  today,  and  even  those  to be  born  tomorrow,  must  join  the  feast”  (Thiong’o,  19).  Gikonyo  also  thinks  that  his country  is  ready  for  freedom.  “For  a  time  Gikonyo  forgot  his  mission  to  the  city  as  his heart  fluttered  with  the  flags.  He  got  out  of  the  bus  and  walked  down  Kenyatta  Avenue feeling  for  the  moments  as  if  the  city  really  belonged  to  him…  to  Gikonyo  Nairobi  seemed ready for Independence” (Thiong’o, 59-60). Ngugi,  by  means  of  Kihika,  expresses  his  thoughts  about  freedom.  In  every  case, Kihika  tries  to  motivate  his  people  for  the  independence.  Kihika  says  “Choose  between freedom  and  slavery  and  it  is  fitting  that  a  man  should  grab  at  freedom  and  die  for  it” (Thiong’o,  186).  Kihika  also  believes  that  black  people  are  the  owners  of  Kenya.  It  does not  belong  to  the  whiteman.  This  soil  belongs  to  Kenyan  people.  Thus,  nobody  has  right  to sell  or  buy  it.  He  sees  Kenya  as  their  mother  and  also  thinks  that  all  her  children  are  equal before  her.  She  is  their  common  inheritance  (Thiong’o,  96).  He  continues  his  speech  by giving  the  example  of  India  and  Gandhi  to  encourage  his  people.  Because,  he  believes  that if  they  never  stop  fighting  against  the  colonizers,  freedom  will  come  so  soon.  With  the story  of  Gandhi, he  also stresses the importance  of  togetherness. It  is  a  question  of  unity,  the  example  of  India  is  there  before  our  noses.  The  British were  there  for  hundreds  and  hundreds  of  years.  They  ate  India’s  wealth.  They  drank India’s  blood.  They  never  listened  to  the  political  talk-talk  of  a  few  men.  What happened?  There  came  this  man  Gandhi…  they  say  with  one  voice:  we  want  back our  freedom.  The  British  laughed,  they  are  good  at  laughing.  But  they  had  to swallow back their  laughter  when things turned out serious (Thiong’o, 86).

We also  see  why  native  people  went  to  the  forest.  The  only  reason  of  this  is  the  increasing oppression  of  the  colonizers.  They  went  into  the  forest  because  whiteman  never  behaved them  in  a  good  way  as  he  declared.  “He  ruled  with  the  gun,  the  lives  of  the  all  black  people of  Kenya”  (Thiong’o,  95).  General  R.  talks  to  the  public  to  make  them  aware  about  the colonizers and  why  they  chose  to live in the forest: The  whiteman  went  in  cars.  He  lived  in  a  big  house.  His  children  went  to  school. But  who  tilled  the  soil  on  which  grew  coffee,  tea,  pyrethrum,  and  sisal?  Who  dug the  roads  and  paid  the  taxes?  The  whiteman  lived  on  our  land.  He  ate  what  we  grew and  cooked.  And  even  the  crumbs  from  the  table,  he  threw  to  his  dogs.  That  is  why we went into forest.

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*POST COLONIAL FEMINISM

Gayatri  Spivak  also  mentions  the  inferior  position  of  third  world  women,  and  she uses  the  term  “subaltern”  to  describe  them.  She  focuses  on  mainly  colonized  females  who are  double-colonized  economy  and  gender.  And,  she  makes  it  clear  that  there  are  not  two basic  categorizations  of  people  and  nations  as  colonizer  and  colonized,  but  there  is  another group  except  for  this,  and  it  is  colonial  women  oppressed  by  both  the  colonizer  and colonized.  In her most famous  work,  Can the Subaltern Speak, she  points out  that: Within  the  effaced  itinerary  of  the  subaltern  subject,  the  track  of  sexual  difference is  doubly  affected.  The  question  is  not  of  female  participation  in  insurgency,  or  the ground  rules  of  the  sexual  division  of  labor,  for  both  of  which  there  is  evidence.  It is,  rather,  that,  both  as  object  of  colonialist  histography  and  as  subject  of insurgency,  the  ideological  construction  of  gender  keeps  the  male  dominant.  If,  in the  context  colonial  production,  the  subaltern  has  no  history  and  cannot  speak,  the subaltern female  is even  more  deeply  in shadow  (Spivak, 28). That  is,  the  oppression  of  colonialism  and  patriarchy  makes  it  unbearable  for  the  females, for  this  reason  non-white  women  were  silenced  and  nobody  can  hear  them.

Woman  offered  their  naked  bodies  to  him,  even  some  of  the  most  respectable  came to  him  by  night.  But  Mumbi,  his  Mumbi,  would  not  yield,  and  he  could  never  bring himself to force  her (Thiong’o, 205). That  shows  the  bitter  lives  of  colonized  women  in  a  wretched  society.  Even  they  were enjoying  with  themselves,  women  have  the  fear  of  humiliation.  Ngugi  says  in  the  novel “Mothers  warned  their  daughters  to  take  care  not  to  be  raped  in  the  dark”  in  the  festival  of celebration (Thiong’o, 199)

COLONIALISM- POST COLONIALISM:-

Oxford English Dictionary  defines the term as: A  settlement  in  a  new  country…  a  body  of  people  who  settle  in  a  new  locality, forming  a  community  subject  to  or  connected  with  their  parent  state;  the community  so  formed,  consisting  of  the  original  settlers  and  their  descendants  and successors,  as  long  as  the  connection  with  the  parent  state  is  kept  up.

This definition of Colonialism is also problematic. Because it says Settlement in new locality..., But what about those people who were  already living there. What did they do with them??? What about the conflict between settlers and Natives?? The definition is silent over this matter. so we can understand that how under a good language even Oxford dictionary has totally changed the meaning of Colonialism. Whenever next generation will read this definition, they will think Colonialism means this only.Meaning is constructed by language.

So, the tale which OXford definition tries to hide, is made public by Ngugi wa Thiongo in the novel. There is always another side of coin, the darker shade which White people's definition was trying to hide is shown to the world- that what colonialism actually was. Supression, torture, slavery, killing of mass, rape were faced by Natives.

In  spite  of  these  deaths,  nobody  stepped  back.  “The  movement  remained  alive  and  grew,  as people  put  it,  on  the  wounds  of  those  Waiyaki  and  Kihika  left  behind”  (Thiong’o,  17).

 And the  deaths  of  these  people  were  the  grains  of  wheat,  which  led  to  freedom.  Especially, Ngugi  stresses  the  death  of  Waiyaki:  “Then  nobody  noticed  it,  but  looking  back  we  can  see that  Waiyaki’s  blood  contained  within  it  a  seed,  a  grain,  which  gave  birth  to  a  movement whose  main strength thereafter sprang  from a  bond with the  soil”  (Thiong’o, 12). The  colonizers  showed  no  mercy  to  the  native  people  during  the  emergency.  But  in the  beginning,  the  colonizers  were  not  as  hard  as  during  the  emergency.  “…  whiteman came  to  the  country,  clutching  the  book  of  God  in  both  hands,  a  magic  witness  that  the whiteman  was  a  messenger  from  the  lord.  His  tongue  was  coated  with  sugar;  his  humility was  touching”  (Thiong’o,  10).  By  using  the  Bible  and  mild  language,  they  attracted  several people. But their  attitudes changed day  by  day, they  threw  the  Bible  and used sword:

Kihika  also  deals  with  the  colonizers’  use  of  the  Bible.  He  is  aware  of  the  fact  that  the colonizers  benefited  from  the  Bible  just  to  get  the  lands  of  the  native  people.  He  makes  it clear that:

We  went  to  their  church.  Mubia,  in  white  robes,  opened  the  Bible.  He  said:  let  us kneel  down  to  pray.  We  knelt  down.  Mubia  said:  let  us  shut  our  eyes.  We  did.  You know, his remained open  so that he could read the  word. When we  opened  our eyes, our land was  gone  and the  sword of flames stood on guard  (Thiong’o, 14)

The  most  grief  oppressions  were  generally  experienced  by  the  women.  They  were  seen  as sex  tools  for  the  colonizers.  Ngugi  mentions  an  event  in  which  Mugo  also  takes  place, “Mugo  had  been  arrested  during  the  Emergency  for  intervening  to  stop  a  policeman  from beating up a woman who, it was said, had refused him sex” (Thiong’o, ix).  Emergency  is  the  other  name  of  Mau-Mau  rebellion,  and  during  this  movement  a lot  of  people  suffered  so  much.  Githua  is  one  of  these  sufferers,  who  lost  one  of  his  hands. He  says  “I  tell  you  before  the  Emergency,  I  was  like  you;  before  the  whiteman  did  this  to me  with  bullets,  I  could  work  with  both  hands,  man”  (Thiong’o,  3).  Kihika,  one  of  the main  characters  of  the  novel  who  died  for  his  own  country,  was  also  excruciated  by  the colonizers.  “Kihika  was  tortured.  Some  say  that  the  neck  of  a  bottle  was  wedged  into  his body  through  the  anus  as  white  people  in  the  Special  Branch  tried  to  wrest  the  secrets  of the  forest  from  him”  (Thiong’o,  17).  His  sufferings  ended  with  death.  He  “was  hanged  in public,  one  Sunday,  at  Rungei  Market,  not  far  from  where  he  had  once  stood  calling  for blood  to  rain  on  and  water  the  tree  of  freedom”  (Thiong’o,  17).  Waiyaki  is  also  one  of  the sufferers, who was killed brutally  by  the  colonizers.

Conclusion:-
Thus, we can examine A Grain of Wheat from Historical, biographical and post colonial approach.

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Work Cited:-

Wikipedia contributors. "Mau Mau Uprising." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 10 Feb. 2016. Web. 4 Apr. 2016.

Alhabian, Rama Mohammed Ghaili. "Uhuru: a post colonialist reading of Kenya's independence in Nugi wa thiongo's selected poems." 27 November 2010.

Bolat, Eren. "The figure of post colonial women in Ngugi wa Thiongo's Petals of blood and a grain of wheat." august 2014.

Thiongo, Ngugi Wa. A Grain of Wheat. Heienmann, 1967.

Explain in detail what is Mass Communication ?? and contribution of mass media in it

•  . Introduction:-

The question may come in our mind that what is communication? or say mass communication?? As well as what is mass media? what is role of mass media in 21 st century? And how both are connected with each other?

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So, lets begin with meaning of communication.

Communication  means the practice of  encoding information through sounds, symbols, and actions  in order to  transmit that  information to  others. Communication  also includes decoding that  information and interpreting it  to  give  it  meaning.

By Mass communications,  we  mean  communicating  with  many  people, perhaps millions  of  people, often simultaneously. Mass communications are messages: the means of  communicating  these messages is through the  mass media.

Because generally people tend to believe that communication is limited, one to one communication or one to particular group. But now time has changed a lot. With the emergence of new media we are able to transmit same message to very large number of people within no time. The example of it is T.V. , Facebook or say other notifications to individual via mail or message.

Mass communication is the study of how people and entities relay information through mass media to large segments of the population at the same time. It is usually understood to relate newspaper , magazine, and book publishing, as well as radio , television and film, even via internet as these mediums are used for disseminating information, news and advertising . Mass communication differs from the studies of other forms of communication, such as interpersonal communication or organizational communication, in that it focuses on a single source transmitting information to a large number of receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior , attitude , opinion, or emotion of the person or people receiving the information.(Wikipedia)

Mass communication is "the process by which a person, group of people, or large organization creates a message and transmits it through some type of medium to a large, anonymous, heterogeneous audience." This implies that the audience of mass communication are mostly made up of different cultures, behavior and belief systems.

 • • • Interpersonal communications have existed as long as humanity; mass communications are a relatively recent development. Mass media in the past lacked the ability to quickly receive feedback from their audiences, but new communication technology provides increased interactivity. Just as interpersonal communications allow people to establish relationships with each other, mass communications serve a role in building and maintaining communities. Mass communications are distributed through mass media, which arose during the • • American Industrial Revolution of the 1800s to provide mass marketing for firms that mass manufactured products. (Baran and Dannis)

 mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets.

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Mass communications require technology.  Today,  many  forms of  mass communications rely  on  electronics. However,  the first important event in mass communications was movable type and the printing  press, which was originally operated by  hand. The German  printer Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468) often is credited with  inventing movable type around 1440. While many  scholars  today believe  that  movable type originated in China about 600 years earlier, Gutenberg did popularize it  in Europe. Movable type was a significant  improvement over earlier forms of  bookmaking, which involved either handwritten manuscripts or  the use of  carved woodblocks. Movable type made printing faster and easier, as a printer could quickly set up  lines of  type  and quickly print documents. This new efficiency in printing reduced the cost of  printing  documents and the cost of  the documents themselves. When books became less expensive, more people could buy books. (Paxson)

History:-The first important book that  Gutenberg published was the Bible in 1455. Prior to  this time, few people owned the Bible.  Few people could read, as there was little reading material, and there was little need to  read. Even if one could read, printed documents were  quite expensive. As  a result, rich people and some officials within the Roman Catholic Church  were  among the few Europeans who could read prior to  Gutenberg’s work.

Mass media provide us with reproductions of moving images, still images, and sounds. We  are able to  view  performances and sporting events that we  cannot  attend in person. We  are able to  see landmarks and works of  art from  all around the world. We  are able to  watch  historic events, such as presidential inaugurations  and wars. It  is easy to  take  this for granted today, but this ability to  observe  or  witness from  a distance is a relatively  recent phenomenon in the thousands of  years of  human existence.

As  media scholar David Buckingham tells, “The media do not offer us a transparent window on  the world.  They provide channels through which representations  and images of  the world can be  communicated  indirectly. The media  intervene; they  provide us with selective  versions  of  the world, rather than  direct access to  it.

However,  not all of  mass media’s  effects on  contemporary  culture are harmful.  Mass media allow us to  learn about the ideas and activities of people around the world.  They allow us to  witness the Because the media greatly affect our lives, it is important to be media literate. All media messages are constructed. The media have a distinct language or code. Audience responses to media vary and are based on individual characteristics and belief systems. The media have embedded values that reflect their cultural setting. • The media have an agenda; the media affect our lives in part because that is what media owners want to do.work of  some of the world’s  most creative  artists. They can cheer us up  when we  are sad or stressed and keep us company when we  are alone.

Advertising, in relation to mass communication, refers to marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner that encourages the audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place through some form of mass media, such as television , studying the effects and methods of

advertising is relevant to the study of mass communication. Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from a sponsor. Through mass communication channels, the sponsor promotes the adoption of goods, services or ideas. Advertisers have full control of the message being sent to their audience.

Broadcasting is the act of transmitting audio and/or visual content through a communication medium, such as radio , television , or film. In the study of mass communication, broadcasting can refer to the practical study of how to produce communication content, such as how to produce a television or radio program. When broadcasting through radio and television, the entertainment and information can be distributed by wire and wireless to other radio stations, television stations, and networks. The channels offer informative and entertaining content of general and specific interest. Along with radio and television broadcasting, those presenting the information could present the information live or recorded.

Journalism , is the collection, verification, presentation, and editing of news for presentation through the media, in this sense, refers to the study of the product and production of news . The study of journalism involves looking at how news is produced, and how it is disseminated to the public through mass media outlets such as newspapers , news channel, radio station, television station, and more recently, e-readers and smartphones. The information provided pertains to current events, trends, issues, and people.

★ Methods of Study

The main focus of mass communication research is to learn how the content of mass communication affects the attitudes, opinions, emotions, and ultimately behaviors of the people who receive the message.

Characteristics

Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University :  "[C]omprises both technical and institutional methods of production and distribution" - This is evident throughout the history of mass media, from print to the Internet, each suitable for commercial utility Involves the "commodification of symbolic forms" - as the production of materials relies on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work; jas radio stations rely on their time sold to advertisements, so too newspapers rely on their space for the same reasons "[S]eparate contexts between the production and reception of information" Its "reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers" "[I]nformation distribution" - a "one to many" form of communication, whereby products are mass-produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences.

FILM as a mass media:-

Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras , or by creating them using animation techniques and/or special effects . Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created. Flickering between frames is not seen because of an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as beta movement. Film is considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten, and inspire audiences. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the film message. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.

★Internet

The Internet  is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email , online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. The Internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything is becoming accessible via the internet. Rather than picking up a newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people can log onto the internet to get the news they want, when they want it. For example, many workers listen to the radio through the Internet while sitting at their desk. Even the education system relies on the Internet. Teachers can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They may have web pages on which students can get another copy of the class outline or assignments. Some classes have class blogs in which students are required to post weekly, with students graded on their contributions.

★ Blogs

Blogging , too, has become a pervasive form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video. . Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Microblogging is another type of blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts.

★ Podcast:-

A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to the series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster.

★Print media

Magazine

A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising and/or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly , with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published.

★Newspaper

A newspaper is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up the bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online.

★ Outdoor media

Outdoor media is a form of mass media which

comprises billboards, signs, placards placed

inside and outside of commercial buildings/

objects like shops/buses, flying billboards,

blimps,

skywriting, AR Advertising. Many commercial

advertisers use this form of mass media when

advertising in sports stadiums.

CONCLUSION:-

The list can be extended. New things are coming everyday & it will keep developing due to Wtechnical advances.

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Work Cited:-

Wikipedia contributors. "Mass communication." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 16 Mar. 2016. Web. 21 Mar. 2016.

Wikipedia contributors. "Mass media." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 13 Mar. 2016. Web. 21 Mar. 2016.

Baran, , Stanley, J and , Davis K Dannis. Mass Communication theories. 6. Michael Rosenberg, n.d.

Paxson, Peyton. Mass communication and media studies. n.d.